For effective communication to take place in a global world, goodwill and good intentions are helpful—but they are not enough. If you’re going to be effective, you need to know how cultures differ and how these differences influence communication. Research supports several major cultural distinctions that have an impact on communication: (1) individualist or collectivist orientation, (2) emphasis on context (whether high or low), (3) power structure, (4) masculinity–femininity, (5) tolerance for ambiguity, (6) long- and short-term orientation, and (7) indulgence and restraint. Each of these dimensions of difference has significant impact on all forms of communication (Gudykunst, 1994; Hall & Hall, 1987; Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010). Following the major researchers in this area, these differences are discussed in terms of countries, even though in many cases different nations have very similar cultures (and so we often speak of Hispanic culture, which would include a variety of countries). In other cases, the same country includes varied cultures (for example, Hong Kong, although a part of China, is considered separately because it has a somewhat different culture) (Hofstede, Hofstede, & Minkov, 2010).
Before reading about these dimensions, consider the statements below; they will help personalize the text discussion and make it more meaningful. For each of the items below, select either a or b. In some cases, you may feel that neither a nor b describes yourself accurately; in these cases simply select the one that is closer to your feeling. As you’ll see when you read this next section, these are not either/or preferences, but more-or-less preferences.
1. Success, to my way of thinking, is better measured by
a. the extent to which I surpass others.
b. my contribution to the group effort.
2. My heroes are generally
a. people who stand out from the crowd.
b. team players.
3. If I were a manager, I would likely
a. reprimand a worker in public if the occasion warranted.
b. always reprimand in private regardless of the situation.
4. In communicating, it’s generally more important to be
a. polite rather than accurate or direct.
b. accurate and direct rather than polite.
5. As a student (and if I feel well informed), I feel
a. comfortable challenging a professor.
b. uncomfortable challenging a professor.
6. In choosing a life partner or even close friends, I feel more comfortable
a. with just about anyone, not necessarily one from my own culture and class.
b. with those from my own culture and class.
7. In a conflict situation, I’d be more likely to
a. confront conflicts directly and seek to win.
b. confront conflicts with the aim of compromise.
8. If I were a manager of an organization I would stress
a. competition and aggressiveness.
b. worker satisfaction.
9. As a student, I’m more comfortable with assignments in which
a. there is freedom for interpretation.
b. there are clearly defined instructions.
10. Generally, when approaching an undertaking with which I’ve had no experience, I feel
a. comfortable.
b. uncomfortable.
11. Generally,
a. I save money for the future.
b. I spend what I have.
12. My general belief about child-rearing is that
a. children should be cared for by their mothers.
b. children can be cared for by others.
13. For the most part,
a. I believe I’m in control of my own life.
b. I believe my life is largely determined by forces out of my control.
14. In general,
a. I have leisure time to do what I find fun.
b. I have little leisure time.
■ Items 1–2 refer to the individualist–collectivist orientation; a responses indicate an individualist orientation, and b responses indicate a collectivist orientation.
■ Items 3–4 refer to the high- and low-context characteristics; a responses indicate a high-context focus, and b responses indicate a low-context focus.
■ Items 5–6 refer to the power distance dimension; a responses indicate greater comfort with a low power distance, and b responses indicate comfort with a high power distance.
■ Items 7–8 refer to the masculine–feminine dimension; a responses indicate a masculine orientation; b responses, a feminine orientation.
■ Items 9–10 refer to the tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty; a responses indicate high tolerance, and b responses indicate a low tolerance.
■ Items 11–12 refers to the long- or short-term orientation; a responses indicate long-term orientation, and b responses indicate short-term orientation.
■ Items 13–14 refer to indulgent and restraint orientation; a responses indicate indulgent, and b responses indicate restraint cultures.
Understanding your preferences in a wide variety of situations as culturally influenced (at least in part) is a first step to controlling them and to changing them should you wish to do so. This understanding also helps you modify your behavior as appropriate for greater effectiveness in certain situations. The remaining discussion in this section further explains these orientations and their implications.
Before reading about these dimensions, consider the statements below; they will help personalize the text discussion and make it more meaningful. For each of the items below, select either a or b. In some cases, you may feel that neither a nor b describes yourself accurately; in these cases simply select the one that is closer to your feeling. As you’ll see when you read this next section, these are not either/or preferences, but more-or-less preferences.
1. Success, to my way of thinking, is better measured by
a. the extent to which I surpass others.
b. my contribution to the group effort.
2. My heroes are generally
a. people who stand out from the crowd.
b. team players.
3. If I were a manager, I would likely
a. reprimand a worker in public if the occasion warranted.
b. always reprimand in private regardless of the situation.
4. In communicating, it’s generally more important to be
a. polite rather than accurate or direct.
b. accurate and direct rather than polite.
5. As a student (and if I feel well informed), I feel
a. comfortable challenging a professor.
b. uncomfortable challenging a professor.
6. In choosing a life partner or even close friends, I feel more comfortable
a. with just about anyone, not necessarily one from my own culture and class.
b. with those from my own culture and class.
7. In a conflict situation, I’d be more likely to
a. confront conflicts directly and seek to win.
b. confront conflicts with the aim of compromise.
8. If I were a manager of an organization I would stress
a. competition and aggressiveness.
b. worker satisfaction.
9. As a student, I’m more comfortable with assignments in which
a. there is freedom for interpretation.
b. there are clearly defined instructions.
10. Generally, when approaching an undertaking with which I’ve had no experience, I feel
a. comfortable.
b. uncomfortable.
11. Generally,
a. I save money for the future.
b. I spend what I have.
12. My general belief about child-rearing is that
a. children should be cared for by their mothers.
b. children can be cared for by others.
13. For the most part,
a. I believe I’m in control of my own life.
b. I believe my life is largely determined by forces out of my control.
14. In general,
a. I have leisure time to do what I find fun.
b. I have little leisure time.
■ Items 1–2 refer to the individualist–collectivist orientation; a responses indicate an individualist orientation, and b responses indicate a collectivist orientation.
■ Items 3–4 refer to the high- and low-context characteristics; a responses indicate a high-context focus, and b responses indicate a low-context focus.
■ Items 5–6 refer to the power distance dimension; a responses indicate greater comfort with a low power distance, and b responses indicate comfort with a high power distance.
■ Items 7–8 refer to the masculine–feminine dimension; a responses indicate a masculine orientation; b responses, a feminine orientation.
■ Items 9–10 refer to the tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty; a responses indicate high tolerance, and b responses indicate a low tolerance.
■ Items 11–12 refers to the long- or short-term orientation; a responses indicate long-term orientation, and b responses indicate short-term orientation.
■ Items 13–14 refer to indulgent and restraint orientation; a responses indicate indulgent, and b responses indicate restraint cultures.
Understanding your preferences in a wide variety of situations as culturally influenced (at least in part) is a first step to controlling them and to changing them should you wish to do so. This understanding also helps you modify your behavior as appropriate for greater effectiveness in certain situations. The remaining discussion in this section further explains these orientations and their implications.
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